Characterizing structural heterogeneity involves a combination of experimental techniques and computational methods. Some common techniques include:
X-ray Diffraction (XRD): Provides information about the crystalline structure and phase composition of the catalyst. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM): Offers high-resolution images of the atomic arrangement and defects in the catalyst. Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM): Allows for the visualization of surface structures and defects at the atomic level. Spectroscopic Methods: Techniques like X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) and Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) can provide insights into the chemical composition and electronic properties.
