Several techniques are used to characterize surface defects, including:
1. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM): Provides high-resolution images of the catalyst surface to identify defects. 2. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM): Offers detailed images of the internal structure of the catalyst. 3. X-ray Diffraction (XRD): Used to analyze the crystal structure and identify any irregularities. 4. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM): Measures the surface topography and identifies defects at the atomic level.
