Various techniques are used to characterize defects and dopants in catalytic materials. [Spectroscopic methods](href) like X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) can provide information about the electronic environment and the presence of vacancies and dopants. Additionally, microscopy techniques like transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) can offer insights into the structural aspects of defects and dopants at the atomic level.
