Several advanced techniques are employed to study catalysts under operando conditions:
1. X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS): This technique provides information on the oxidation state and local structure of the catalyst. 2. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR): FTIR can monitor the formation of intermediate species and products in real-time. 3. Raman Spectroscopy: Useful for identifying vibrational modes of molecules, aiding in the detection of intermediates and changes in catalyst structure. 4. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM): High-resolution imaging to observe morphological changes in catalysts during reactions. 5. Mass Spectrometry (MS): Coupled with other techniques to monitor the composition of reactants and products continuously.
