Three-way catalysts (TWCs) are advanced catalytic converters used predominantly in automotive exhaust systems to reduce harmful emissions. They are termed "three-way" because they simultaneously facilitate three critical reactions: the oxidation of carbon monoxide (CO) into carbon dioxide (CO2), the oxidation of unburned hydrocarbons (HC) into CO2 and water (H2O), and the reduction of nitrogen oxides (NOx) into nitrogen (N2).