Several techniques are employed to characterize surface structures:
1. Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM): This technique provides atomic-scale images of the surface, allowing direct observation of the arrangement of atoms. 2. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS): XPS can determine the elemental composition and chemical state of the surface atoms. 3. Low-Energy Electron Diffraction (LEED): LEED provides information about the periodic arrangement of atoms on the surface. 4. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM): AFM measures surface topography and can be used to study surface roughness and morphology.
