To understand and optimize surface-engineered catalysts, various characterization techniques are employed: - X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) to analyze the chemical composition and oxidation states of surface elements. - Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to visualize the surface morphology and nanostructure. - Atomic force microscopy (AFM) to measure surface roughness and topography. - BET surface area analysis to determine the surface area and porosity of the catalyst.
