Various analytical techniques are used to study and characterize sintering in catalysts. [Transmission electron microscopy](href) (TEM) and [scanning electron microscopy](href) (SEM) can provide detailed images of the catalyst surface and particle size distribution. [X-ray diffraction](href) (XRD) can be used to study the crystalline structure and identify changes due to sintering. Additionally, techniques like [temperature-programmed reduction](href) (TPR) and [temperature-programmed oxidation](href) (TPO) can provide insights into the thermal stability of the catalyst.
