Several advanced techniques are used to characterize material heterogeneity:
Microscopy techniques: Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) provide insights into the morphology and structure at the nanometer scale. Spectroscopy techniques: X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX), and Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) help in identifying the chemical composition and electronic states. Diffraction techniques: X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Neutron Diffraction (ND) are used to study the crystalline structure and phase composition. Surface area analysis: Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method measures the surface area and porosity, which are crucial for understanding the accessibility of active sites.
