Detecting intermediate samples is challenging due to their transient nature. Common techniques include: 1. Spectroscopic Methods: Techniques such as NMR, IR, and Raman spectroscopy can provide information about the structure and environment of intermediates. 2. Mass Spectrometry: This technique can be used to identify the mass of intermediate species, providing clues about their chemical nature. 3. X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy: This technique is particularly useful for studying intermediates on solid catalysts, giving information about the oxidation state and local environment.
