X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS): This technique helps in understanding the electronic structure and oxidation states of elements in catalysts. X-ray Diffraction (XRD): Used to determine the crystalline structure of materials, which is crucial for understanding how catalysts work. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS): Provides information on the surface composition and chemical states of the elements present. Small Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS): Useful for studying the size and shape of nanoparticles used in catalysis. In-situ and Operando Techniques: These methods allow researchers to study catalysts under actual working conditions, providing more relevant data.
