- TEM uses a beam of electrons transmitted through a specimen to form an image. The interaction of electrons with the sample reveals structural information at the atomic scale. - SEM employs a focused beam of electrons to scan the surface of a sample. The emitted secondary electrons are collected to form high-resolution images of the surface. - XPS involves irradiating a material with X-rays and measuring the kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons. This data provides information about the elemental composition and chemical states. - AFM uses a cantilever with a sharp tip to scan the surface of a sample. The deflection of the cantilever is measured to create topographical maps. - In situ spectroscopy techniques observe catalytic reactions under actual operating conditions, providing real-time insights into reaction mechanisms.
