Several techniques are employed for catalyst characterization, each providing unique information:
1. X-ray Diffraction (XRD): This technique determines the crystalline structure of the catalyst material. It helps in identifying the phases present and their crystallite sizes.
2. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM): These imaging techniques provide high-resolution images of the catalyst surface and morphology.
3. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS): XPS analyzes the surface composition and oxidation states of the elements present in the catalyst.
4. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR): FTIR identifies functional groups and chemical bonds in the catalyst material.
5. Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) Surface Area Analysis: This method measures the surface area and porosity of the catalyst, which are crucial for its activity.
