2. Mass Spectrometry (MS) This technique identifies intermediates based on their mass-to-charge ratio. Coupling mass spectrometry with chromatographic techniques like GC-MS or LC-MS allows for the separation and identification of transient species.
3. X-ray Crystallography Though less commonly used due to the requirement for crystalline samples, X-ray crystallography can provide precise structural details of intermediates if they can be isolated and crystallized.
4. Computational Methods Density Functional Theory (DFT) and other computational approaches can predict the existence and properties of transient intermediates, complementing experimental data.
