Catalyst deactivation is detected through a combination of analytical techniques and performance metrics. A drop in conversion rates or selectivity can indicate deactivation. Techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) can be used to examine changes in the catalyst's structure and surface properties. Moreover, temperature-programmed desorption (TPD) and temperature-programmed reduction (TPR) can provide insights into surface chemistry changes.
