Characterization is critical in understanding how catalysts function and in diagnosing issues related to their performance. Techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) are widely used to analyze the structure, surface morphology, and chemical composition of catalysts. Advanced characterization methods, including in situ and operando spectroscopy, provide real-time insights into catalytic processes, enabling researchers to observe the active sites and mechanisms under actual reaction conditions.
