Several techniques are used to study structural transformations in catalysts:
1. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) XRD can provide information on the crystalline structure of the catalyst, helping to identify phase transformations.
2. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) TEM allows for the visualization of the catalyst at the atomic level, providing insights into sintering and surface reconstruction.
3. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) XPS is used to study the oxidation states of elements in the catalyst, useful for understanding redox reactions.
4. In Situ Techniques In situ techniques, such as in situ XRD or in situ TEM, allow for real-time observation of structural changes during catalytic reactions, providing dynamic insights.
