advanced characterization:

What are the Key Techniques in Advanced Characterization?

Several advanced techniques are employed to characterize catalysts, each providing unique insights:
X-ray diffraction (XRD): Used to determine the crystalline structure and phase composition of catalysts.
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM): Provides high-resolution images of catalyst morphology and particle size.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM): Offers surface morphology and composition analysis.
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS): Used to analyze the surface chemistry and electronic states of elements.
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR): Identifies functional groups and adsorbed species on catalyst surfaces.
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR): Provides information on the local environment of nuclei in the catalyst.

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