Several advanced techniques are used to study surface reconstruction:
1. Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM): STM provides atomic-scale images of the surface, allowing for direct observation of surface reconstructions. 2. Low-Energy Electron Diffraction (LEED): LEED is used to determine the surface structure by analyzing the diffraction pattern of low-energy electrons scattered from the surface. 3. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS): XPS can provide information about the chemical state and electronic environment of surface atoms, which can change during reconstruction. 4. Density Functional Theory (DFT): DFT calculations are used to model surface reconstructions and predict their effects on catalytic properties.
